Grammar Lessons

by Grammar Cat

May 2, 2024, 9:22 p.m.

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Various grammar lessons on Sentence Structure, Subject Verb Agreement, Parallelism, Pronoun Shift, Conditionals, Perfect Tense (Present and Past), Colons, Commas, Semicolons, Faulty Comparison, Diction Error / Word Choice Error, Modifiers, Appositives, Non-Essential Elements, Transitions, Redundancy

Writing - Sentence Structure A

 

Key Points

 

Clause = subject and verb i.e. I like dogs.  Because I like dogs.

IC = independent clause = can stand alone i.e. I like dogs.

DC= dependent clause = cannot stand alone i.e. Because I like dogs.

CC = coordinate conjunctions = FANBOYS (mnemonic)

Examples of coordinate conjunctions (FANBOYS)

                                                                                                                      

for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

 

 

DMW = Dependent Marker Words 

Examples of some subordinating conjunction DMW:

 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

after	although	as	as if	as long as	as though
because	before	even if	even though	if	if only
in order that	now that	once	rather than	since	so that
than	that	though	till	unless	until
when	whenever	where	whereas	wherever	while

 

Examples of relative pronoun DMW: 

 

                                                                                                                                             

who	whom
whose	which
that	what

 

 

DC, IC example:

Because I like dogs, I work at the pet shop.

IC DC example:

I work at the pet shop because I like dogs.

IC; IC example:

I like dogs; they smell good.

IC, CC IC example (make sure it is logical):

I like dogs, for they smell good. (works/logical)

I like dogs, and they smell good. (works/logical)

I like dogs, nor they smell good. (does not work/illogical)

CC IC examples:

But I don't know.

And I don't know.

 

Sentence Structure B

 

Keypoints

Keypoints from Sentence Structure A:

 

Clause = subject and verb i.e. I like dogs.  Because I like dogs.

IC = independent clause = can stand alone i.e. I like dogs.

DC= dependent clause = cannot stand alone i.e. Because I like dogs.

CC = coordinate conjunctions = FANBOYS (mnemonic)

 

Keypoints from Sentence Structure B:

 

IMW = independent marker word (Adverbial Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverbs)  NOT THE SAME AS DMW

Examples of some Adverbial Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverbs:

 

accordingly	also	anyway	besides	certainly	consequently
conversely	conversely	further	furthermore	hence	however
incidentally	indeed	instead	instead	meanwhile	namely
nevertheless	next	nonetheless	now	otherwise	similarly
still	subsequently	then	thereafter	therefore	thus
undoubtedly

 

 

IMW, IC example:

However, he didn’t work at the pet shop. (IMW in front of IC)

He, however, didn’t work at the pet shop. (IMW in the middle of IC)

He didn’t work at the pet shop, however. (IMW at the end of IC)

 

Example of typical SAT error using IMW, IC.

I like dogs, however, I own a cat. (wrong) IC, IMW, IC.

I like dogs; however, I own a cat. (correct) IC; IMW, IC.

 

Writing - Subject Verb Agreement A

 

Things you should already know:

 

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural).  Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be in singular form; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be in plural form.

 

The dog eats a cat every Tuesdays.

dog = singular (no s)  eats = singular form (s)

The dogs eat a cat every Tuesdays.

dogs = plural (s)  eat = plural (no s)

 

Key Points

 

Identifying the operative noun and the operative verb is one of the first thing you should do when you encounter a writing question.  

 

There are two simple steps:

 

The first step is identifying all the nouns and verbs.  

 

The second step is eliminating all the nonoperative nouns and verbs.

The operative noun is basically the noun that does the action of the operative verb. 

 

For example:

 

The dog are black.

The operative noun is 'dog'.

The operative verb is 'are' and it is in the wrong form.

 

The dog and the cat is hungry.

The operative noun is 'dog and cat'.

The operative verb is 'is' and it is in the wrong form.

 

 

Easy peasy lemon squeezy...  Let's try a harder sentence.

 

 

The dog that went to Pet’s R Us, a prominent pet store in North Korea, freed all the caged animals, aggravating the surly, vindictive leader Kim Jung-Un.

 

 

First step: identify all the all the nouns and verbs

 

The dog that went to Pet’s R Us, a prominent pet store in North Korea, freed all the caged animals, aggravating the surly, vindictive leader Kim Jung-Un.

 

 

Second step: eliminate all the nonoperative nouns and verbs

 

Let's skip 'dog' for now.

 

'Went' is not the operative verb because it is a part of a modifier (that went to Pet’s R Us).

 

'Pet's R Us' is not the operative noun because it is a part of the same modifier as 'went'.

 

'Store' and 'North Korea' are not operative nouns because they are parts of an appositive (a prominent pet store in North Korea). 

 

Let's skip 'freed' for now.

 

'Aggravating' is not the operative verb and Kim Jung-Un is not the operative noun because they are parts of a modifier (aggravating the surly, vindictive leader Kim Jung-Un).

 

That finally leaves us with 'dog' and 'freed' our operative noun and operative verb.  We can clearly see that the dog freed the caged animals. The dog did the action of freeing.

 

 

 

Writing - Parallelism

 

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

 

Words and Phrases

 

With the -ing form (gerund) of words:

 

Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

 

 

With infinitive phrases:

 

Parallel:

Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
OR
Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

*Do not mix forms.

 

Example 1

 

Not Parallel: 
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

 

Parallel: 
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

 

 

Example 2

 

Not Parallel: 
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner.

 

Parallel: 
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.

 

 

Example 3

 

Not Parallel: 
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.

 

Parallel: 
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.

 

 

Clauses

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.

 

 

Example 1

 

Not Parallel: 
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.

 

Parallel: 
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.

— or —

Parallel: 
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

 

 

 

Example 2

 

Not Parallel: 
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)

 

Parallel: 
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.

 

 

 

Lists After a Colon

 

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.

 

Example 1

 

Not Parallel: 
The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

 

Parallel: 
The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.

 

 

 

Writing - Pronoun Shift

 

What is a pronoun?

• A word that replaces a noun

• We will discuss 4 types:

– Subject pronouns and object pronouns

– Demonstrative pronouns

– Reflexive pronouns

– Relative pronouns

 

Subject pronoun and Object pronoun

• Subject pronoun = main noun that performs the verb

• Object pronoun = the noun which the verb is directed at

 

Subject Pronoun	Object Pronoun
I	Me
You	You
He/She	Him/Her
It	It
We	Us
They	Them

 

• “Joey kissed Rachel.”

– Joey = subject

– Rachel = object

 

• “He kissed her.”

 

EXAMPLE

 

• “Her and her friend like to stay in their hotel room and drink beer whenever they take a trip.”

 

   – Plural subject = her and her friend

   – Break up the subject and try it with a singular verb

• “Her likes to stay…” (WRONG)

• Her friend likes to stay…”

• So the correct answer should be SHE and her friend like to stay in their hotel room…”

 

Demonstrative Pronouns

• Represents a thing/things

 

• Near in distance/time:

 

   – This (singular)

• “This t-shirt is ripped.”

 

   – These (plural)

• “These pens are not working.”

 

• Far in distance/time:

   – That = singular

• “That restaurant looks really good

   – Those = plural

• Those wings look awesome!”

 

Reflexive Pronouns
• object = subject of the verb

 

singular	plural
myself	ourselves
yourself	yourselves
himself/herself	themselves
itself

 

• “I’m teaching myself to play the guitar”

• “She is looking at herself in the mirror”

• “The cat licked itself clean”

• The boys got themselves into trouble”

 

Relative Pronouns

 

• Introduce relative clauses (type of DC)

 

• Modify a word, phrase or idea in the main clause (the antecedent)

 

• We will look at:

– Who/whom

– Which

– That

 

What is a relative clause?
(or subordinate clauses)

 

• A defining relative clause (essential, no commas)

 

   – Identifies or defines the person or object that we’re talking about

   – “I don’t know the man who was talking to me.”

• Who = relative pronoun

• “who was talking to me” = relative clause

• Since “I don’t know the man” wouldn’t give us the information we need, the RC “who was talking to me” is a DRC.

 

• A non-defining relative clause (non-essential, needs commas)

 

   – Gives extra information about a noun whose identity we already know.

   – “London, which is the capital of England, is a large city.”

• Which = relative pronoun

• “which is the capital of England” = relative clause

• Since it can be “London is a large city.”, the RC “which is the capital city of England” is an NDRC.

 

 

WHO

 

• WHO (Subjective form)

   – Acts as the SUBJECT of the sentence – meaning, the person doing the action

 

   – “Who ate the pizza?”

• He ate the pizza

 

   – “Who won the contest?”

• Mark won the contest

 

   – “I don’t care who presents the information”

• An unnamed person needs to present the information

 

WHOM

 

• WHOM (Objective form)

   – Acts as an object of a verb – meaning, the person receiving the action

• “You called whom?”

• “You called him?”

• Whom do you believe will catch the ball?

   – Someone is receiving the action – catching the ball

 

   – Acts as an object of a preposition (of, in, to, for, with, on, from, by… etc.)

• Preposition = to

• “I deliver the pizza to whom?”

• “I deliver the pizza to him”

 

To make it easier

 

If you can answer the question with I, he, or she use WHO

If you can answer the question with me, him or her use WHOM

 

Examples

 

• ______ dropped the pen?

– I Dropped the pen.

– He or she dropped the pen

– Answer: WHO

 

 •______ should Matt choose as his lab partner?

– Matt should choose me

– Matt should choose him or her

– Answer: WHOM

 

 

• “Brightly lit stations welcomed the public, many of whom/of who were skeptical of travelling underground.”

• Answer: of whom

 

• “Through my parents, whom/who were still in touch with Joan’s father, I learned that Joan was currently living in Fairbanks.”

• Answer: Who

 

Relative Pronoun: Which

 

• Which = pronoun for animals or objects

– “The bike which he forgot to lock was stolen”

• “which he forgot to lock” = relative clause

• “which” = refers to the bike

 

– Comma + which = refers to the whole sentence or fact.

• “You’ve all passed the test, which is no surprise.”

– “which is no surprise” = relative clause 

– “Which” = refers to the sentence “you’ve all passed the test”

 

Relative Pronoun: That

 

• That = for objects, animals or people in defining relative clauses (info that is essential)

• DRC (essential clauses)

 

   – “The people who live here are lovely.

• “the people that live here are lovely.

   – “This is a house which is very old.”

• “This is a house that is very old.”

 

• NDRC (non-essential clauses)

 

   – “My Uncle Bob, who is a butcher, has a cat.”

• “who is a butcher” = NDRC

• so you cannot say “My Uncle Bob, that is a butcher, has a cat.”

 

Can we omit relative pronouns?

• YES!

–  Only when the relative pronoun is NOT the subject of the defining relative clause.

–  “The boys who/that you saw are my nephews”

• “who/that you saw” = defining relative clause

   – Subject = you (not who)

   – Verb = saw

   – Object = the boys

   – Therefore can say “the boys you saw are my nephews”

   –“The woman who phoned me last night was my mother”

•  “who phoned me last night” = defining relative clause

   – Subject = who

   – Verb = phoned

   – Object = me

   – Therefore cannot say “The woman phoned me last night was my mother.”

Writing - Conditionals

 

Key Points

Conditional = IF clauses or IF statements

 

There are other conditionals but I will talk about the 4 Basic conditionals. (No Mixed Conditionals)

 

Conditional 0 = FACT

Conditional 1 = LIKELY events

Conditional 2 = UNLIKELY but POSSIBLE events

Conditional 3 = IMPOSSIBLE events because of TIME

 

CONDITIONAL 0

 

Conditional 0 deals with FACTS.

Conditional 0 can easily be identified because Conditional 0 uses the present tense in both clauses.

Conditionals come in DC, IC or IC DC.

 

For example:

If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.

Water boils if you heat it to 100 degrees Celsius.

If you quit, you lose.

You lose if you quit.

 

CONDITIONAL 1

 

Conditional 1 deals with LIKELY events.

Conditional 1 can be identified because Conditional 1 uses the present tense in the dependent clause and the future tense in the independent clause.

Conditionals come in DC, IC or IC DC.

 

For example:

 

If you study, you will pass.

You will pass if you study.

If you drink coke, you will get fat.

You will get fat if you drink coke.

 

CONDITIONAL 2

 

Conditional 2 deals with UNLIKELY but POSSIBLE events.

Conditional 2 can be identified because Conditional 2 uses the past tense in the dependent clause and auxiliary verb + present tense (present conditional or present continuous conditional) in the independent clause.

Conditionals come in DC, IC or IC DC.

 

For example:

 

If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.

I would buy a new car if I won the lottery.

If I become president, I would make the country better.

I would make the country better if I become president.

 

CONDITIONAL 3

 

Conditional 3 deals with IMPOSSIBLE events (because of TIME).

Conditional 3 can be identified because Conditional 3 uses the past perfect in the dependent clause and auxiliary verb + present perfect tense (perfect conditional or perfect continuous) in the independent clause.

Conditionals come in DC, IC or IC DC.

 

For example:

 

If I had known the lottery numbers, I would have won.

I would have won if I had known the lottery numbers.

If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.

You would have passed your exam if you had worked harder.

 

♦ The SAT occasionally test for Conditional 0 and 1, but mostly the SAT tests for Conditional 2 and 3.

 

 

Writing - Perfect Tense A (Present and Past)

 

Key Points

Perfect Tense A (Present Perfect and Past Perfect)

 

There are other Perfect Tenses but I will talk about Present Perfect and Past Perfect in this lesson. 

 

Past Perfect

 

The Past Perfect is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have (had) + the past participle of the main verb.

A past participle indicates past or completed action or time. It is often called the 'ed' form as it is formed by adding d or ed, to the base form of regular verbs; however, it is also formed in various other ways for irregular verbs.

 

The Past Perfect is used when you want to signify that an action happened before another action in the past.

 

For example:

 

Past Perfect : He had had a car.  (This is not a typo)

(He had a car until something happened.)

Simple Past : He had a car.

(He had a car until sometime in the past.)

 

Present Perfect

 

The Present Perfect is composed of two parts: the present tense of the verb to have (have) + the past participle of the main verb.

 

The Present Perfect is used when you want to signify that an action happened at an unspecified time before NOW. The exact time is not important.

 

For example:

 

Present Perfect : I have had a car.

(Sometime before now I had a car.)

 

The Present Perfect has several restrictions. The Present Perfect CANNOT be used with specific time expressions.

 

Examples of restricted specific time expressions:

yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc.

 

The Present Perfect CAN be used with unspecific expressions.

 

Examples of unspecific expressions:

ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

 

 

 

Writing - Colons

 

Key Points

 

NOTE: The one main rule you must remember about using colons is that it must come after a complete sentence. Or in other words, an IC.

 

There are three usages of the colon

 

 

1.  To introduce an example or list.

 

 

For example:

 

Claire went to the market to buy the ingredients she needed to bake her cake: flour, eggs, and sugar.

 

 

 

2. To give an explanation or an answer.

 

 

For example:

 

Lucy is afraid of bees: she was stung once as a child and ended up in the hospital.

 

 

 

3. To state a quotation.

 

 

For example:

 

Don’t forget the Golden Rule: “Do onto others as you would have them do onto you."

 

 

 

*Be careful not to separate a subject from its verb or a verb from its object.

 

 

Example 1:

 

The wedding cake was made: with layers of icing, fresh fruits, edible flowers, and chocolate mousse.

o   A. NO CHANGE

o   B. made, with

o   C. made with

o   D. made with:

 

 

Example 2:

 

At the Supermarket, Mary picked up three items. Bread, cheese, and soup.

o   A. NO CHANGE

o   B. three things; bread,

o   C. three things: bread,

o   D. three things, bread,

 

SECOND PART IS A FRAGMENT not a complete sentence. 

 

 

 

Writing - Commas

 

There are 4 usages of the comma you should know for the test.

 

The first usage you need to know is using commas in a series.

 

Key Points

 

 

1. Use a comma between each item in a series of 3 or more items.  

NOTE: Items can be any type of grammatical unit, such as nouns,verbs, participles, infinitives, or subordinate clauses, to name a few

 

 

For example:

 

 

I went to the store to buy apples, peaches, and bananas.

James, Tom, and Ben like to eat cheeseburgers.

 

 

2.  Some people do not use the comma before the AND but it’s clearer to use it

 

 

For example:

 

 

My favorite condiments are ketchup, mustard and relish.

Without the extra comma, it seems like there are two items: (1) ketchup and (2) mustard and relish together

 

 

The second usage you need to know is using commas with two or more coordinate adjectives.

 

 

Key Points

 

 

1. Using commas with two or more coordinate adjectives.

Note: Coordinate adjectives are adjectives in a row that each separately modifies the noun that follows.

 

 

For example:

 

Slippery, treacherous roads are common in Jeju Island.  

 

Both “slippery” and “treacherous ” modify “roads.” You can even rearrange the coordinate adjectives and say, “treacherous , slippery roads.

 

 

 

2. If it makes sense to put AND between adjectives, you can use a comma

 

For example:

 

The young AND energetic boy sang loudly.  (WORKS)

 

Jenny likes to wear green wool sweaters. (DOES NOT WORK)

 

 

 

 

The third usage you need to know is using commas with a coordinate conjunction/FANBOYS.

 

 

The fourth usage you need to know is using commas to set off a non-defining relative clause.

 

 

Thinks you should already know.

 

Clause = subject and verb i.e. I like dogs.  Because I like dogs.

IC = independent clause = can stand alone i.e. I like dogs.

DC= dependent clause = cannot stand alone i.e. Because I like dogs.

AI = additional information (non-defining relative clause)is separate the information that is not necessary for the point of the sentence.

CC = coordinate conjunctions = FANBOYS (mnemonic)

Examples of coordinate conjunctions (FANBOYS)

for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

 

1. Using commas with a coordinate conjunction/FANBOYS when:

 

 

A. Joining 2 ICs.

 

Example 1:

 

Emily likes to play with stuffed animals, and Jenny likes to play with Barbie dolls.

 

IC, CC IC.

 

 

Example 2:

 

I went to the convenience store and bought some chips.

 

In this case, “bought some chips” is not an IC so you can’t use a comma.

I went to the convenience store, and bought some chips. WRONG

 

 

B. Expressing contrast

 

For example:

I like cakes, but not ice cream.”

 

 

2. Using commas to set off additional information (non-defining relative clause ). In other words, separate the information that is not necessary for the point of the sentence.

 

 

Example 1:

 

Paris, the capital city of France, is a popular tourist attraction.

 

Since the point of the sentence is that Paris is a popular tourist attraction, the information “the capital city of France” is not necessary to have in the sentence.

Therefore, we separate the clause by putting commas around it.

If you read the sentence with the deletion of the additional information, it would be “Paris is a popular tourist attraction.” Which makes perfect sense.

So, remember that if you’re not sure, try reading the sentence without it and see if it still makes sense. Let’s look at another example.

 

 

Example 2:

 

People, who do not like horror movies, won’t enjoy watching The Grudge.

 

If we remove the clause “who do not like horror movies”, then the sentence loses necessary information. Therefore you cannot surround it with commas.

 

3. Applying Lessons Learned

 

 

The store clerk, although fluent in English, did not understand the customer’s request.”

o A. NO CHANGE

o B. store clerk, although,

o C. store clerk although,

o D. store clerk although

 

 

1.  In option A, we have two commas surrounding the words, “although fluent in English.” So we have to check to see if this clause is presenting necessary information or additional information.

 

Let’s try reading the sentence without it and see if it conveys the main point of the sentence

The store clerk did not understand the customer’s request.

Since that makes sense, we know that we can remove the additional information. Option A is the correct answer.

 

Let's check out the other options anyway to see what’s wrong with them.

 

2.  Option B surrounds the word “although” with commas, which means that we can delete it. We also have the words “fluent in English” surrounded by commas

So let's read the sentence without it

Since it doesn’t work to have two clauses surrounded by commas we know that option B is incorrect.

 

3.  Option C surrounds the words “fluent in English” with commas which means it can be deleted. So lets read the whole sentence again.

The store clerk although did not understand the customer’s request.

That doesn’t make sense, so we know that option C is incorrect.

  

4.  The last option is wrong because it separates the subject with its verb which is grammatically incorrect.

Now that we’ve gone through all the options, we know that A is the correct answer.

 

Writing - Semicolons

 

There are 3 usages of the semicolon you should know for the SAT.

 

 

The first usage you need to know is connecting 2 ICs that are related in meaning without using any connecting words/FANBOYS. IC; IC.

 

 

 

Thinks you should already know.

 

 

IC = independent clause = can stand alone i.e. I like dogs.

IMW = independent marker word (Adverbial Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverbs)  (accordingly, also, conversely, nevertheless, therefore, etc.).  NOT THE SAME AS DMW  

CC = coordinate conjunctions = FANBOYS (mnemonic)

 

Examples of coordinate conjunctions (FANBOYS)

 

for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

 

 

 

 

Key Points

 

The most common punctuation question on the SAT.

 

Essentially, semicolons connect 2 ICs together.

 

ICs have a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought and can, therefore, standalone

There are two ways of using it:

IC;IC or IC; IMW, IC

 

That means it should be correct to replace it with a period but you won’t be asked to choose between them.

 

 

 

 

1.  The first usage is connecting 2 ICs that are related in meaning without using any connecting words/FANBOYS. IC; IC.

 

For example:

 

Some students see the merits of living at home, they enjoy not having to cook or do their own laundry.  (WRONG)

 

Two ICs connected by a comma = a comma splice

SPLICE means to JOIN not split

Replace the comma with a semicolon to correct the error

 

Susie lives in downtown Toronto; she lives in the distillery district.  (CORRECT)

 

 

Example Question:

 

 

The Johnson family decided to go to Mexico for Christmas, they really needed some time to relax.

o A. NO CHANGE

o B. Christmas, they,

o C. Christmas they

o D. Christmas; they

 

 

The second usage you need to know is joining 2 ICs together using Independent marker words (IMW) or more formally known as “Adverbial Conjunctions”.

 

 

The third usage you need to know is separating items in a series or list if they don’t already have commas.

 

 

Key Points

 

The most common punctuation question on the SAT.

 

 

1.  The second usage is joining 2 ICs together using Independent marker words (IMW) or more formally known as “Adverbial Conjunctions”.

 

Independent marker words (IMW) or Adverbial Conjunctions are adverbs that connect two ICs and show relationships.

 

These include words like:

However, furthermore, moreover, meanwhile, nonetheless, furthermore, therefore, thus, whereas…etc.

 

 

For example:

 

Tom studied for his English exam at a coffee shop; however, it was hard to concentrate because the music was too loud.

IC; IMW, IC.

 

 

2.  The third usage is separating items in a series or list if they don’t already have commas.

 

For example:

 

There are two ways to get to your destination: by foot or public transportation, which is inexpensive and easily accessible; or by taxi, which is more expensive but quick.

 

 

 

Writing - Faulty Comparison

 

You Can Only Compare Equivalent Things

 

An illogical or faulty comparison occurs when a sentence compares two things that aren't of the same type:

 

Faulty Comparison

Jimmy’s restaurant has more customers than Bob does.

 

 

Even though it might seem fine, this sentence is comparing "Jimmy's restaurant" with "Bob," which makes no sense. In order to correct it, we have to alter the wording so that the two things being compared are the same type of thing:

 

Logical Comparison

Jimmy’s restaurant has more customers than Bob's restaurant does.

 

 

This sentence, though correct, sounds pretty repetitive. To streamline it, we can drop the second "restaurant":

 

Logical Comparison (streamlined)

Jimmy’s restaurant has more customers than Bob's does.

 

 

It's still clear that we're comparing Jimmy and Bob's restaurants, but in a way that's not as redundant sounding. Depending on the sentence's construction, it may also be correct to substitute "that" or "those" for the second noun (as long as it's the same as the first one):

 

Logical Comparison

I prefer the novels of J.K. Rowling to those of Stephenie Meyer. ("Those" takes the place of "the novels.")

 

Though they look the same on most maps, the size of Alaska is actually twice that of Texas. ("That" takes the place of "the size.")

 

 

There are two main types of illogical comparison errors that appear on the SAT writing: comparisons between people and things and comparisons between specific type and all things of that type.

 

 

 

The first key rule is that you must compare people to people and things to things.

 

So to return to our first example, it's correct to compare Bob's restaurant and Jimmy's restaurant because they're both things or to compare Bob and Jimmy because they're both people but you can't compare Jimmy's restaurant and Bob or Bob's restaurant and Jimmy.

 

 

 

The second rule is that you can't compare something of specific type to all things of that type.

 

This rule may sound strange, but it doesn't make sense to compare one person with everyone—you would compare them with everyone else. You can't compare something with a group that includes that thing without specifying that you're talking about everything else in the group. Let's look at an example:

 

Incorrect: A cheetah is faster than any land mammal.

Correct: A cheetah is faster than any other land mammal. 

 

 

Although most illogical comparisons questions on the SAT test one of these rules, you may see some that don't. In those cases, you'll have to use common sense to determine if a comparison is logical. For example, it makes sense to compare a train and a car, it doesn't make sense to compare a train and the length of a car.

 

Pay attention to exactly what the sentence is saying—it's easy to extrapolate the intended point and miss the error in the wording. Keep this SAT writing strategy in mind!

 

 

 

Writing/Reading - Diction Error / Word Choice Error

 

Mark Twain once quipped, “The difference between the right word and the almost-right word is the difference between lightning and a lightning bug.” I doubt that he was thinking about standardized Writing tests when he uttered those words, but they are conveniently applicable to SAT diction errors.

Writing - Modifiers

Key

Modifier

Dangling Modifier

Misplaced Modifier

Subject (doer of the action)

 

Modifiers:

 

A modifier is a word or phrase that adds detail or description to a sentence. In the example sentences below, the modifiers are highlighted.

 

Examples:

I walked in and out of dozens of stores yesterday, searching for the perfect purse.

Shopping with Lisa today, I found a great purse.

 

While modifiers add detail and interest to sentences, they must be used carefully so that the reader understands the details being added. Writers generally make two major modifier mistakes: dangling modifiers and misplaced modifiers.

 

Dangling Modifiers:

 

A dangling modifier occurs when the subject of the modifier is unclear. Most dangling modifiers occur at the beginning of sentences, but they can also occur at the end. 
Consider the sentence below and its revision (the modifiers are highlighted).

 

INCORRECT: 

Having looked through the whole music store, the CD I wanted just wasn’t there.

 

From the way this sentence is written, it actually looks like the CD has been looking through the whole music store. Even though readers can probably guess that it is the writer who has looked through the whole music store, the dangling modifier makes the sentence unclear. We can correct the dangling modifier and make the sentence clearer by adding a subject for the modifier.

 

POSSIBLE REVISION: 

Having looked through the whole music store, I realized that the CD I wanted just wasn’t there.

 

Misplaced Modifiers:

 

Misplaced modifiers occur when the subject of the modifier is unclear because the modifier is poorly placed. The reader may be unsure of what word the modifier is describing. The reader may even think the misplaced modifier is describing a different word than intended. Consider the sentence below and its revision (the modifier is highlighted).

 

INCORRECT:

The jacket was just too small in the store.

 

The placement of the modifier in the store implies that the jacket was too small in the store. If the writer wants to convey that the jacket suddenly changed sizes when worn in other locations, then the modifier’s placement in the sentence is correct. If the modifier is intended to specify that the author is talking about the jacket in the store, then this modifier should be moved.

 

POSSIBLE REVISION: 

The jacket in the store was just too small.

 

Writing - Appositive

 

Appositives

 

An appositive is a noun or pronoun — often with modifiers (white text)— set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. Here are some examples of appositives (the noun or pronoun will be in teal, the appositive will be in red).

 

Examples:

Your friend Bill is in trouble.

My brother's car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the envy of my friends.

The chief surgeon, an expert in organ-transplant procedures, took her nephew on a hospital tour.

 

An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.

 

Examples:

A bold innovator, Wassily Kandinsky is known for his colorful abstract paintings.

The first state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, Delaware is rich in history.

A beautiful collie, Skip was my favorite dog.

 

Punctuation of appositives

 

In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.

 

 

Example 1:

The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

 

Here we do not put commas around the appositive because it is essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "The popular US president was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We wouldn't know who the president is without the appositive.

 

 

Example 2:

John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

 

Here we put commas around the appositive because it is not essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We still know who the subject of the sentence is without the appositive.

 

 

Example 3:

John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.

 

Here we do not put commas around either appositive because they are both essential to understanding the sentence. Without the appositives, the sentence would just be John Kennedy was quite different from John Kennedy. We wouldn't know what qualities of John Kennedy were being referred to without the appositive.

 

 

Writing - Non-Essential Element

 

Non-Essential Elements

 

Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term, while others are nonessential and don't restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas or dashes.

 

Rule: A nonessential clause should be set off from the sentence by matching punctuation, such as two dashes or commas. 

 

If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.

 

Examples:

Nonessential: The average world temperature, however, has continued to rise significantly. (word)

Essential: The sixth-century philosopher Boethius was arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death. (word)

Nonessential: Company managers, seeking higher profits, hired temporary workers to replace full-time staff. (phrase)

Essential: The person checking tickets at the counter asked for a form of identification. (phrase)

Nonessential: My uncle, who is eighty years old, walks three miles every day. (clause)

Essential: The woman who interviewed you is my sister. (clause)

 

 

Dashes aren’t very common on the SAT, but they do come up. They can be used to mark off a non-essential clause or phrase (like a comma). 

If dashes are used with non-essential clauses or phrases, you can’t mix them with commas. You have to go with either two dashes or two commas. Here’s an example:

 

Incorrect: 

Ryan, an energetic teenager—can’t sit still during class.

Correct: 

Ryan—an energetic teenager—can’t sit still during class.

Correct: 

Ryan, an energetic teenager, can’t sit still during class.

 

Writing - Transition

 

 

There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads readers to make certain connections or assumptions. Some lead readers forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while others make readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.

 

Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers in a given way.

 

 

To Add:

and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)

 

 

To Compare:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true

 

 

To Prove:

because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

 

 

To Show Exception:

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

 

 

To Show Time:

immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then

 

 

To Repeat:

in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted

 

 

To Emphasize:

definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

 

 

To Show Sequence:

first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon

 

 

To Give an Example:

for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate

 

 

To Summarize or Conclude:

in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently

Writing - Redundancy

 

Redundancy

Redundancy means using a word or phrase that repeats what is already stated or implied in the sentence. Here is an example of a sentence with a redundancy error:

Margaret participates in an annual marathon to raise money for ulcerative colitis each year.

 

The word "annual" means that the marathon takes place every year. Therefore, the phrase "each year" is redundant and unnecessary.

 

Redundancy on the SAT

 

On SAT redundancy questions, typically a phrase is added that is unnecessary given other words/phrases in the sentence.  Take a look at this example:

Because the speaker was not using a microphone, his voice was inaudible and could not be heard.

 

 

The word "inaudible" means could not be heard. Therefore, the phrase "and could not be heard" is unnecessary. This is the corrected version of the sentence:

Because the speaker was not using a microphone, his voice was inaudible.

 

 

Just like in our discussion of wordiness, the most concise grammatically correct sentence is the right answer.

 

 

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